Taxation Tasks Essay Example for Free

Taxation Tasks Essay 1) Patty owned Patty’s Cakes in Jacksonville, Florida. She sold her business to Fruity’s, Inc. a national pastry company. There was a non-compete agreement in the contract for the sale of her business. In the non-compete, Patty agreed not to work in any capacity in the food industry for 10 years on the entire east coast. A court would likely determine that the non-compete agreement a) violates federal law b) is unenforceable c) is enforceable d) both A and B 2) A liability that may extend from an employee to the employer if the employee is acting within the scope of his or her employment at the time the liability arose is called: a) vicarious liability b) employee liability c) employer liability d) adverse liability 3) A person who contracts with a principal to perform a task according to her or his own methods, and who is not under the principal’s control regarding the physical details of the work is called a/an: a) Contingent worker b) Temporary worker c) Independent contractor d) All of the above 4) Benita works as a nursing assistant in a retirement home run by Cottonwood Care Centers, a national operator of facilities providing care for the elderly. Benita works 53 hours a week. After looking at her payroll stubs for the past 6 months, she concludes that she has not received sufficient overtime pay. She complains to her supervisor but the company takes no action. a) Benita can bring a complaint to the National Labor Relations Board under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) b) Benita can bring a complaint to the U.S. Department of Labor, under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) c) Benita can bring a complaint to the U.S. Department of Labor, under the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA). d) Benita can bring a complaint to the U.S. Department of Labor, under Executive Order 11246 5) Ling frequently stocks shelves for Ace’s Market on an as needed basis. Ace pays Ling $5 per shelf. One day Ling falls off a broken ladder while stocking a shelf. Line is seriously injured: a) If Ling is determined to be an independent contractor, he is eligible for workers’ compensation b) If Ling is determined to be an employee, he is eligible for workers’ compensation c) Ling is eligible for workers’ compensation whether he is an employee or an independent contractor d) None of the above 6) ABC, Inc. solicited bids from various independent contractors to landscape the grounds of its new office complex. Drew, head of facilities management told Patty, his secretary, that he would not accept any bids from Hispanic contractors. Drew explained that he would authorize hiring only American contractors to work on the grounds. A Hispanic contractor brings a lawsuit against ABC for discriminations. a) Drew’s refusal to hire Hispanic companies is a violation of the Independent Contractors Act of 2006. b) Drew’s refusal to hire Hispanic companies is a violation of the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act c) The Hispanic contractor cannot prevail in a discrimination case because John’s conversation with his secretary is confidential and cannot be used as evidence. d) Drew’s refusal to hire Hispanic companies is not a violation of the Title VII of the Civil Rights Act because that law does not cover discrimination against independent contractors. 7) BRC Partners is a consulting firm. Sam and Arnie are analysts for BRC. Sam was hired as an employee and Arnie was hired as an independent contractor. They both work in the same BRC office under the same supervisor. They both must work Monday through Friday during the standard business hours. Both are required to report to weekly staff meetings. Sam is paid a salary and the proper federal and state tax withholdings are made. Arnie does not receive benefits like retirement and health insurance and his is paid by the project with no federal and state withholdings. Arnie signed a contract that clearly stated he was an independent contractor and not an employee. a) BRC has properly classified Arnie as an independent contractor b) BRC has improperly classified Arnie as an independent contractor c) BRC has improperly classified Arnie as an independent contractor, however, its contract with Arnie is binding and BRC will have no liability under federal or state law for the misclassification. d) BRC has improperly classified Arnie as a independent contractor, however, its contract with Arnie is binding and BRC will have no liability under federal and state law for the misclassification, but Arnie will have liability under federal and state law. 8) Pilar is hired by Axel, Inc. as an independent contractor. To avoid a determination by the IRS that Pilar has been misclassified as an independent contractor, Axel should: a) provide training to Pilar b) pay her by the hour c) pay FICA d) none of the above 9) Clarence works as an independent contractor for the law firm of Kafka, Rivera and Grisham. a) Clarence will be responsible for making payments for his Social Security (FICA), estimated federal income tax payments, estimated state income tax payments and Medicare. b) Clarence will be responsible for making payments for his FICA and Medicare and the law firm will be responsible for withholding payroll deductions for his federal and state income taxes. c) Clarence will be responsible for making payments for his Social Security (FICA) and Medicare, but the law firm will be responsible for making estimated federal income tax payments, estimated state income tax payments for him. d) Clarence will be responsible for making payments for his Social Security (FICA), withholding deductions for his federal and state income taxes and Medicare. 10) Which of the following is not covered by the EEOC’s definition of contingent worker? a) an employee hired through a staffing firm b) a temporary, seasonal, or part-time worker c) an applicant d) an independent contractor

Misunderstanding Within The Group Social Work Essay

Misunderstanding Within The Group Social Work Essay Abstract: Free riders are those who take the same credit of you without exerting efforts. They are present in many groups, but it depends whether they are known early or not. Also many guys tolerate with free riders if they were their friends, but work and friendship are separated things. Every group should have a communication way, where all the group members agree on. And no one says that I did not know or I did not get the message. And this is something we suffered from. And because there are many members in the group and everyone has his own business, everyone should be on time for the meeting. When any group want to choose their topic, they should choose it wisely because wrong choosing will cost them time and effort. Working like a team is better than working like a group, but team work requires discipline, which we lacked. The abilities within the group differ, but you should try to get the maximum from everyone. Interpersonal relationship is the social connection between the group memb ers which grow with time. Positive interpersonal relationship between group members leads the organization forward and to employees satisfaction. Organizations know interpersonal relationship effects, so they try to provide the appropriate working climate for it. The managers have influence on employees interpersonal relationship and he tries to make it positive of the benefits he can get from it. Group members working together at all times and seeking a common goal is working like a team. To have an effective team you need to work hard and combine the right people together. Team effectiveness is measured by the final outcome and employees satisfaction. Introduction: Group assignments provide postgraduate students with opportunities to improve their capabilities and demonstrate a professional behaviour. Personally, the group assignment is considered to be a valuable experiment that led me to write this reflective essay. The group assignment had a great impact on my skills as it had lot of benefits. I learned lot required behaviours from working with a diverse group. Group work differs from working individually as it involves an interaction with others that might result in conflict occurrence, misunderstanding and so on. There may be difficult times during group work, but a group member should be wise and help the group to pass those difficult times. I have relied on my diary notes captured after group meetings to write this essay to reflect reality. Although there is a distinction between friendship and work, I prefer to work with friends rather than people that I do not know. Effective cooperation among group members would be required at all tim es, so they can complete assigned work and deliver it in the best way with highest level of satisfaction. Free Riding: Free Riding is the absence of contribution and getting the benefit of that good. This view has been supported in the work of Marwell, Ames (1981). Before the module starts we knew that we had a group assignment and it must contain 4-6 individuals, so we were four friends knowing that we can make a group of friends only, but we have been thinking that if we entered two more participants it will be easier for us as everyone will write less and concentrate more on his points, and that will help us to concentrate on our other assignments also, but what we have been afraid of is that we may have two free riders who will make the work harder. From the first day that we have decided to meet at, we found that 3 of the group members were not there, so we were thinking about free riders and will we accept those free riders in our group because of the friendship we have. I and the present group members decided that this is work and we do not like to work hard and the free riders get the same cr edit. A personal experiment of being in a group with free riders made us insist of our situation that we do not want free riders in our group, as before the submission date they came with no work in their hand saying that we did not know what to do, so we have decided to work together all the time and to divide the work and everyone do his part, but we have a weekly meeting to ensure that there will be no one free riders. Discovering free riding before the grading is important, but detecting the free riding early is much better for the group to take the corrective action and to work all together and get those free riders involve in the work again (Free riding in group work Mechanisms and countermeasures, n.d.). Therefore, we decided to meet often so we can ensure that we are all walking on the right side. And we have asked the professor about the grading system and she said if you were the manager and you have free riders in your group, what you would do? And I was thinking of leav ing them behind as they will delay our work and make it harder, but if I must have them in my group I will give them specified tasks and ask them often about their progress with an evidence to ensure that they are really working and contributing with the group. Misunderstanding within the group: There was a misunderstanding regarding the time at the first meeting, as we have decided to meet at 11 am and then some of the group members changed the meeting time till 3 pm and they have said that we have sent a message on Facebook, but not all of the group members actually got the message, so we ended up blaming each other. I think that happened because we did not have that person who could take the responsibility to tell everyone about the exact time and if the time changed or there was any kind of change in plan, he would tell all the group members. Also, I think the existence of that kind of person in every group is important and will lead to a better performance and satisfaction from all the group members. Because of the misunderstanding, we have delayed our work for one more day as the members who came early had other plans to do at the time of the new group meeting appointment. Consequently, we have decided to have one communication channel for the group and it is doing a g roup chat on Facebook and everyone contributing in deciding the meeting time, so no one can have any kind of excuse of not attending the meeting. Meeting time: When we wanted to choose our meetings time, we were asking all the group members if that time was appropriate for them, because we wanted our meetings to be on time. The thing that happened was that I am there on time, but I had to wait at least an hour and half for the group meeting to start, because the members were always late. I waited and we did our meeting, but I was frustrated because of the late start. I have told them many times to choose the right time that they will be there and they have apologized for their lateness and promised to be on time for the next time. The same lateness behaviour had reoccurred as usual in which late members were acting normal, but the other group members were frustrated and complaining. The other group members had cool nerves and sometimes they have just waited others for an hour and a half to let us complete the work. I think this has affected our group performance, as if we were committed to the meeting time we would have done better in the g roup assignment. Improper Subject Selection: At the first we have choose Bloomberg as our subject because there was a Bloomberg guy who came and talked well about Bloomberg and we all found that the subject is very interesting, so we have decided to write about it. Therefore, we have decided on the points that we are going to talk about and that everyone would come back after 3 days with the information about Bloomberg. Apparently, no one has written a thing when the meeting day came and we were all complaining that there was not much available information. Therefore, our improper selection of the subject has led us to a waste some time. Team or Group?: I knew the difference between the team and the group from prof. Sally Sambrook, as she told us that working as group is discussing the points together, distributing the tasks and then everyone do the work individually. In the other hand, working as a team is doing everything together from discussing the points till the end of work. We tried to work as a team because it is more effective and creative than working individually, but the continuous absenteeism and lack of commitment of members in the meetings made it difficult, so we decided to work as a group. In addition, we decided to distribute the tasks in a way that please and satisfy everyone, so we wrote down the tasks and every one chose his favourite task that he would be interested to write about. Individual differences: There were individual differences in the abilities of the group members, as when we met to see and assess everyoneà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s work we found that some members of the group have covered their tasks perfectly while other group members made it difficult because we had to modify their work. My point of view is that I do not consider them free riders because they have tried and I could feel that they made an effort on their tasks, but the abilities within the group are different. Moreover, I suppose that their aim is just to pass while other group members who wanted to have a good grade in the assignment. We found the module is interesting and easy, so there is nothing to prevent us from having A* while others saw it impossible, so there were different aims within the group. Members with high ambitions did not get disappointed from others and have worked very hard. These members with all honesty have gained my respect and gave me a lesson for life that I can do everything even if t he group members are reflecting discouragement and laziness. If you want anything and you work for it very hard, you will achieve it. Interpersonal relationship and team effectiveness: What is an interpersonal relationship? Interpersonal relationship is a strong social connection between two or more people. There are many types of interpersonal relationships, but what we care about is the organizational interpersonal relationship which is the relationship between individuals working together in the work place. They spend a lot of time in the work and for sure they want to talk and discuss their issues with others rather than working alone all the time and that is a natural part of the working environment. Also, there may be a previous relationship between the individuals before working together and this helps the relationship to expand. We as students knew each other before the group assignment, but within the group work we came closer and worked together for longer hours. I think that I have a stronger relationship with them now, after the group work. I would prefer working with them again rather than working with a new group members that I do not have any kind of relationship with them (Management stu dy guide, [online], n.d.). Do interpersonal relationships affect the performance of the individuals? There are many beneficial outcomes for individuals and organizations because of the positive interpersonal relationship at work. Employees can feel job satisfaction and commit to their work because of their positive interpersonal relationship within their workplace. In the other hand, a negative interpersonal relationship could affect the employees and make them upset, and that will lead to lack of commitment towards their work. Obviously, it depends on the individual himself whether he was a social person and like to communicate and interact with the others or he likes to work individually and isolated from the others. A positive interpersonal relationship within the organization will build a supportive and innovative working climate for the employees, which will lead to an increase in the organizational productivity and institutional participation, and that will lead to employees satisfaction (Dachner, 2011, Abstract). In our group work there was a positive interpersonal relationsh ip which have made the work easier and more interesting. Furthermore, we were friends and knew each other before the group work, so it helped us a lot. It is interesting to have friends working together and it would form a comfortable working climate which can help to improve the performance and encourage the members to work hard. In the other hand, friendship in the group can make the members lazy; as they know that if they do not do their work; their friends will not leave them behind and will do their work. Our group had agreed from the beginning to isolate friendship from group work because we did not want the group members to keep depending on the others to do their own work. In my opinion, working with group members that I have a positive interpersonal relationship with them is much easier than working with new groups. Also, from my previous experiment of working with members that I do not know, I can say that there is a risk of being in a group with members who do not care ab out the grades they get, so you find yourself obligated to do their work. How could the organization build a positive interpersonal relationship? The variety of the advantages of the positive interpersonal relationship within the organization has encouraged organizations to build, support, and try to form a strong positive interpersonal relationship. The organization attempts to make the coworkers to become friends, because coworkers with friendship help each other more than normal coworkers. Besides, the organization helps the workers to communicate and work together in groups or teams to build a positive interpersonal relationship in order to provide the appropriate working climate for the workers to communicate and interact with each other. Moreover, the theories propose that demographic characteristics affect social relationship between individuals (Dachner, 2011, Antecedents of Interpersonal Relationships at Work). Consequently, organization could form group works with individuals who share the same demographic characteristics. Our assignment group consists of people from India, China, and I am from Kuwait, but it was eas y to work with them because we all shared the same goal and were working for the same purpose. I think that it depends on the person himself if he wants to make friends with his group and try to help them with their work or he just want to do his part and leave. How the management could affect the interpersonal relationship? Managers want the employees to be friends, help each other, and work together so they can get the most of their performance. Managers could give them the opportunity to socialize and encourage them to be friendly with each other and become friends. There are two influences that managers could have on employees interpersonal relationship. The first is direct and it is forming groups and giving them the chance to work together and compete with other groups which can provide a healthy competition for the organization. The second is indirect and it is giving them appropriate working condition, and not to give them a lot of work that they do not have the time to interact with others (Department of Public Health Sciences, 2010) 2.1 interpersonal relationship at work. A Team in an organizational point of view: A team in an organizational setting is a group of individuals whose tasks are done by working together, who share outcomes responsibility, who consider themselves and are considered by others as a unit inside the organization, who work together at all the times, help each other, and correct each others mistakes to increase the efficiency and improve the quality of the teams outcome, because they are all sharing the responsibility of the final outcome (Cohen, Bailey, 1997). As individuals who worked together for the assignment, although we shared the responsibility for the final outcome, we were not working together at all the time. If we worked as a team, it would have been better than working as a group but the conditions hindered us from working together as a team. Team effectiveness: Teams with high performance need to be developed and nurtured, as they do not just appear without working hard on them. The development of these teams cannot be guaranteed even with visionary leaders. Because if you want to have a high performance team, you should combine visionary leaders and motivated team members. There are many characteristics that help to build a high performance team such as, having a clear plan and a common goal, utilizing teams resources, valuing the differences in the team and trying to get the best from each member, the willingness of the members to give their best for their teams, managing the meetings in the perfect way, and exerting the efforts to achieve the goals. Also there are other things that affect the high performance teams and it is the teams size, the abilities and the skills within the team, the way of communication, and the conflict resolution (Cliffs Notes, n.d.). I agree that high performance teams needs co-operative and hardworking members . Also it requires the commitment from the team members, especially in the meetings time, because we suffered a lot from the members who were always late on our meetings. Measuring the teams effectiveness: As the team members work together all the time with shared responsibility of the final outcome, it is hard to evaluate each members contribution to the work. The manager wants and sees the final outcome only regardless whoever contributed more to the work. The effectiveness of the team is measured by performance and personal outcomes. Measuring the final product, customer satisfaction, items sold, etc. are all kind of performance outcome measurement. While measuring team members commitment and satisfaction and their desire to work with the same team members again is kind of personal outcome measurement. Hence, the grade that we will get in the group essay is the performance outcome, while if I wish to work with the guys that I have worked with again is the personal outcome. In my opinion, our group works both the performance outcome and the personal outcome was excellent. Conclusion: In conclusion working in a group assignment has many advantages and make you learn a lot of things, but everyone should try to get the maximum benefits that he could get. I can say that the group work made me better prepared for the real practical world. Although I had many hard times during the group work, it was interesting and earned me some good friends for lifetime. It was exciting to work with my friends in a group assignment and to help each other trying to get the maximum grade. After reading a lot about the interpersonal relationship and team effectiveness, I realized its importance in the work place and it really affects any organisation, and that is why every organisation is keen on it. Working in a group is totally different from working individually, as working in a group imposes you to respect the group members and their opinions even if these opinions conflict your own opinions, but if you are working alone you are the decision maker. That is the difference that I knew from working in the group assignment and the individual assignment. Finally, working in a group has many benefits that contribute in refining the personality of the participants and often better than the individual work and this is what I had concluded from my personal experiment in the group work.

Neo Realism Of Pather Panchali Film Studies Essay

Neo Realism Of Pather Panchali Film Studies Essay The Bengali feature film Pather Panchali or Song of The Road in English was directed by Satyajit Ray and released in 1955. It was considered a landmark in the field of Indian as well as world cinema. Although it was director Rays debut effort it went on to win critical and popular acclaim from all around the world. The path breaking movie was also instrumental in winning the Best Human Document award at the Cannes Film Festival of 1956. Satyajit Ray had his first truck with neo-realism as far back as 1949, when Jean Renoir the famous director from France came to Calcutta to make the film The River. The neo-realistic influence that is apparent in most of his movies came from this association with the famed movie maker as also from the neo-realistic propensities of the then prevailing Italian cinema (Ruberto. L, Wilson. E Kristi. M 2007). Ray happened to take the famous director to various potential locations in the Bengal countryside. Later he went to London on official business. During the short time he was in London, Ray saw myriads of movies and seeing the film Bicycle Thieves made so profound an impression on him that he decided to be a movie maker, then and there (Robinson, 2003). Pather Panchali is considered to be neo-realist in its implications. The main reason for describing the movie as neo-realistic was the fact that it was filmed not long after the II World War when neo-realism held sway in most of Europe. What made the critics tack the label of neo-realism to Rays movie? Ray chose mostly natural locations while shooting Pather Panchali. He wanted the backdrop of each shot to speak for itself. Also, he totally refrained from the artificially exaggerated practices and gestures of the popular cinema prevailing in India. The movie is said to have amply demonstrated some affiliations with the traditions narration, representation as well as musical address prevailing in earlier times in an effort to articulate in an Indian identity of the day following independence (Vasudevan, 2000). In an attempt to dissociate himself and his creations from the commercial movies emanating from Bollywood, Satyajit Ray stated, The differences appear to emerge from evaluating the status of the narrative form through which the real would be articulated, through what means of representation, styles of acting, aesthetic strategies the real would be invoked. Here the popular compendium studio shooting, melodramatic, externalized forms for the representation of character psychol ogy, non- or intermittently continuous forms of cutting, diversionary story lines, performance sequences was not acceptable within the emergent artistic canon, for they undermined plausibility and a desirable regime of verisimilitude (Ray, 1976). Pather Panchali possessed all the essential characteristics of neo-realism as proposed by the great Italian movie maker Zabattini. The neo-realistic theory lays down the dictum that the filmmaker should not ever impose his own individual interpretation on the movie that he is making and should always remain a passive observer of the reality that he happens to be creating. It does not matter whether he is depicting misery or prosperity, the movie maker should always uphold the utmost objectivity, by subordinating logic to action at all times. Although, even the staunchest of the neo-realists were utterly unable to attain such total objectivity for the simple reason that the subjective element always had a tendency to creep into any artistic creation, they never stopped from trying to achieve it. The same thing holds true for Satyajit Ray when he made his debut film Pather Panchali. In fact Ray was virtually unable to keep the subjective element out of his movie. But he never made comments on his actions, characters or situations. He never pitches hints at his audience and never tells them just what to think and feel. At the same time he was not at all apprehensive about taking the appropriate stances. This is because he was predisposed not to his characters but to the drama of life itself. He had his own ways to suffuse life on to the screen in order to impart a shimmer of hope to all his characters. Pather Panchali and Bollywood movies : A contrast Bollywood movies are a far cry from the realism and objectivity of Rays movies When comparing and contrasting a Satyajit Ray movie to any Bollywood movie, there is nothing much to compare but there is a lot to contrast. The only factor a movie like Pather Panchali has in common with a Bollywood movie is that both are shot in India and is about life in India. The similarity ends there. While Rays movies are predominantly realistic, there is nothing even remotely realistic about Bollywood films. To make matters worse, Satyajit Rays art films received their due recognition from the cognoscenti and welcomed with open hands within the ambit of world cinema. Evidently, Rays movies were in stark contrast to the populist fare dished out to the masses. This further discouraged any scholarly discussion of Bollywood movies within cinematic and media study circles. Madhava Prasad (2003) a film scholar wonders about the significance of the term Bollywood (2003). It might be that being imitative Bollywood cinema needs to be rechristened to emphasize this derivativeness. In another context, Gokulsingh et al states that whereas Hollywood filmmakers strove to conceal the constructed nature of their work so that the realistic narrative was wholly dominant, Indian filmmakers made no attempt to conceal the fact that what was shown on the screen was a creation, an illusion, a fiction. Genre While movies like Pather Panchali comes under the genre of art cinema or parallel cinema, Bollywood movies come under the genre of Masala meaning a mixture of hot spices. The main characteristic of the Masala genre is the song and dance sequences, a critical factor in defining the particular genre. But audiences that invest social realism into cinema find it difficult to accept the genre as they are extraneous constructions of the real (Dudrah, 2002). It might be interesting to note that the term Bollywood does not signify Indian cinema as a whole but is confined to those movies emanating from Mumbai, the erstwhile Bombay (Corliss, 1996). Budget Any film begins with a budget which in turn necessitates financial backing. Another factor that delineates Pather Panchali and Bollywood movies is the matter of budgeting. Pather Panchali was shot with the meager budget of $3000 while Bollywood spends incredible amounts to make musical extravaganzas. Even a single dance scene from a Bollywood movie costs tens of thousands of dollars. Satyajit Ray could not afford even what to a Bollywood producer is an insignificant sum. The government of Rays home state contributed the lions share of the production costs of Pather Panchali. This never happens with Bollywood films. Film distributors around India are standing ready to advance princely amounts of cash to a masala movie emanating from Bolllywood. Monroe Wheeler, the then head of the prestigious Museum of Modern Art was greatly impressed with high levels of quality prevalent in Pather Panchali although what he saw at the time of his visit to Calcutta in 1954 was an incomplete footage. La ter Wheeler asked John Huston, the American movie director who was on a visit to Calcutta to look into the progress Rays debut movie. At Hustons favorable feedback, the Museum of Modern Art provided Ray with additional funds. Still three years had elapsed before the movie went into post-production (Mehta, 1998). Screenplay The screenplay for Pather Panchali was based on the Bengali novel of the same title by the popular novelist Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay. The novel was about the simple lives of people inhabiting the Bengal countryside of the period. Such a theme is generally anathema to Bollywood directors. Again, the scripts of Bollywood movies tend to be involved, complicated and resemble the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle that somehow come together at the very end. In contrast Pather Panchali did not have even a whole script (Robinson, 2003) as it was solely based on Rays notes and drawings. His theme was simple enough with seemingly random sequences of trivial as well as significant sequences pieced together, a practice that is foreign to the mindset of Bollywood movie directors. Rather than dishing out a fare to assist the moviegoers to escape from the harsh realities of life even it is for a few hours as is the case with Bollywood movies, Ray wanted the script à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦to retain some of the ra mbling quality of the novel because that in itself contained a clue to the feel of authenticity: life in a poor Bengali village does ramble (Ray, 1976). Quite unlike a Satyajit Ray movie, a bollywood film is replete with a plot that is extremely melodramatic in its connotations. Most of such movies follow a regular formula with ingredients that is often mindblogging to a serious movie goer. Such formulae is replete with love triangles, family ties, irate parents, corrupt politicians, conniving villains, kidnappers, golden hearted prostitutes, siblings long lost, sudden reversals of fortune, impossible coincidences and what not. Musical score The musical score consisting of Pather Panchali was prepared by the sitar maestro Ravi Shankar who at that time was at the initial stage of his musical development (Lavezzoli 2006). The background score, in the best tradition of Indian classical music, was something that was truly plaintive and exhilarating (Hoberman, 1995). A sound track that was based on the ragas of classical music and did not contain any songs to portray dance sequences was singularly at variance with the inane capers of Bollywood and something that was happening for the first time in the annals of Indian cinema. A Bollywood movie is an epitome of mediocrity with nothing to relate it with life as lived in India. The main emphasis is on musicals consisting of catchy tunes and words accompanied by a series of song-and-dance sequences. Even the theatricl trailers made to promote a movie have their emphasis on song and dance scenes The standard of a movie is based on mainly on the quality of the songs it features. In fact one major factor of movie promotion with Indian commercial movies in general is to release the songs that a movie contains far ahead of its release. A Satyajit Ray movie appeals to the filmgoer for the aesethetic sense it imparts. To see Pather Panchali was to have what MSN Carta defined as a cerebral experience (MSN Encarta).To understand such films the audience should have a sound notion of what a true movie should be as also expect them to be of a high standard. But it is not at all so in the case of Bollywood movies. Plagiarism in Bollywood Movies Bollywood script writers and music composers have a tendency to plagiarize from western sources and from Bengali and Malayalam movies of India which are of a comparatively high standard. Plot lines, ideas, tunes as well as riffs are fair game for Bollywood (Ayres Oldenburg, 2005). In the past Bollywood could get away with impunity as the movies were largely unknown to non-Indian viewers with the result that none had the faintest notion that ones materials was beeing plagiarized (Dudrah, 2002). Well known Bollywood Director Vikram Bhatt put it succinctly when he remarked Financially, I would be more secure knowing that a particular piece of work has already done well at the box office. Copying is endemic everywhere in India. Our TV shows are adaptations of American programmes. We want their films, their cars, their planes, their diet cokes and also their attitude. The American way of life is creeping into our culture. and also If you hide the source, youre a genius. Theres no such th ing as originality in the creative sphere. However some copyright violations were indeed resulted in litigation. For instance the Bollywood movies Zinda in 2005 and Partner in 2007 were taken to court for having plagiarized from the Hollywood movies Oldboy and Hitch respectively. Accolades Another point to note is that Rays films remains an important part of world cinema and he has received more accolade than any other Indian moviemaker. Noted critic Basil Wright made this comment after viewing Pather Panchali for the first time: I have never forgotten the private projection room at the British Film Institute during which I experienced the shock of recognition and excitement when, unexpectedly, one is suddenly exposed to a new and incontrovertible work of art (Chapman, 2003). For instance the noted film critic Constantine Santas opined that Ray developed a distinctive style of film-making (Santas, 2002). Moti Gokulsing and Wimal Dissanayake stated that the basis of Rays works is comprised of strong humanism and visual lyricism (Gokulsing Dissanayake, 2004). Roy had the singular honor of establishing himself as an auteur of cinema with his very first movie (Santas 2002). In contrast no Bollywood film has ever won an international award, won any critical claim or even special mention from anywhere in the world except in those pulp magazines singing paeans to the movie moguls of Bollywood and their mediocre creations; this in spite of the fact that Bollywood churns out more movies per annum than any other country in the world. Although Bollywood movies are immensely popular with India and Indians living abroad, many South Asians eye them with derision labeling them as maudlin and unrealistic. To quote Edward Johnsons aside as he was commenting on the film posters of Bollywood movies, Indian cinema has a reputation in the West founded more on myth than reality. Art directors such as Satyajit Ray are given fulsome praise whilst the majority of commercial cinema receives nothing but ridicule and the entire industry is pilloried as specious drossà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(Johnson, 1987:2). Even scholarship in India which, at times, was dismissive of popular films as Technicolor fantasies catering to the masses. To them Bollywood movies were characterized by dance and music, melodramatic content, lavish production procedures and over emphasis on spectacles and stars. And this is why Bollywood films have attained box-office success and raving audiences within India as also globally and not because of aesthetic excellence or on any grounds of merit. . The evolution of Bollywood Cinema with its constant interruptions of dance and song sequences is cited as a critical feature distinguishing it from other cinemas (Gopalan 2002); it is often also cited as an impediment to serious cinema as well Bollywood apologists complain that their movies are evaluated in the glum shadow of European cinematic forms, epistemologies and aesthetics and that in the confines of these rubrics Bollywood movies become poor imitations of art, exhibiting a total lack of realism of any sort and so remain shallow spectacles of fanatastic settings and music. Conclusion In the latter half of the 20th century filmmakers as well as screen writers of a serious mien became frustrated with the then prevailing musical movies. They wanted to reverse this trend and take the Indian movie to a higher and saner realm. They wanted to develop an altogether new genre of movies that portrayed reality from an aesthetic perspective (Roy, 2008) and not mediocre escapist fare. The pioneering efforts of Satyajit Roy gave birth to a number of highly aesthetic and unforgettable movies from avant garde directors like Mrinal Sen, Adoor Gopalakrishnan, Shyam Benegal and Girish Kasaravalli. And while it lasted no good thing lasts for long it was a real relief from the artifice universally distributed from the gaudy sets of Bollywood.

Does Money Buy Happiness?, by Don Peck and Ross Douthat :: Money and Happiness Essays

Erika’s sweet sixteen is today, and her parents bought her a brand new car. She pulls into the school’s parking lot and flaunts about how her parents not only got her a car, but also a trip to Italy. People start to walk away, even some of her best friends. As the day goes on, her friends have not talked to her since morning. Fed up, Erika asks them what is wrong. Kristie, one of her friends, tells her how they cannot stand listening to her talk about her ostentatious gifts anymore. When Erika gets home from school, her mom asks her what is wrong. It is then she realizes what her friends were trying to say and tells her mother she does not want the car anymore. Her mother, astounded, asks why not and gets a reply of money cannot buy friends, nor can it buy happiness. According to â€Å"Does Money Buy Happiness,† by Don Peck and Ross Douthat, they disagree with the connection between money and happiness. Happiness is a feeling adults experience when they receive a gift, win something, and various other reasons, but does money buy this happiness everyone experiences? Don Peck and Ross Douthat claim money does buy happiness, but only to a point in their article which originally appeared in the Atlantic Monthly (252). Throughout their article, reasons on why money can sometimes buy happiness are explained. While some of the reasons given are effective, not all are satisfying answers for adults working diligently to make a living. Money is a part of everyone’s life, yet it is not always the cause of happiness. One reason described to be a cause of happiness is income. Don Peck and Ross Douthat indicate how, â€Å"National income appears to be one of the best single predictors of overall well-being, explaining perhaps 40 percent of the difference in contentment among nations† (352). With this statement, comes the explanation of how income can influence happiness in adults who strive to earn a living. Research illustrates how, â€Å"For individual countries, with few exceptions, self-reported happiness has increased as incomes have risen† (Douthat 352). While these two statements provide sufficient evidence for the reason of income bringing happiness, income itself is not relevant.

The Therapeutic Value of Charlie Chaplin Essay -- Biography

The Therapeutic Value of Charlie Chaplin Pat Barker's Regeneration represents a part of history for the First World War. Regeneration is an antiwar novel held together by people, places, and cultural references. Charlie Chaplin is a cultural reference used within the novel. Barker refers to Chaplin on page 60 in the novel. When the wounded and dysfunctional soldiers watch a Charlie Chaplin film at the Craiglockhart War Hospital. During the war Charlie Chaplin films were therapeutic for the soldiers, and showing one of his films helps develop the theme of therapy that occurs throughout the novel. Even though Chaplin was unable to participate in the war, he helped boost the morale of the soldiers that were in it. Barker utilizes Chaplin as a cultural reference to show that good morale is needed to help the progress of the patient's therapy, but true recovery takes more than just a film. Charlie Chaplin faced public backlash with his stance on World War I. In The Importance of Charlie Chaplin, Arthur Diamond says, "a British citizen had chosen not to leave the United States to fight for his native country" (58). Chaplin's actions caused British audiences to have mixed feelings about him. They loved his films, but disapproved of his non-participation in the war. However, British representatives said that Chaplin was more valuable as an entertainer than an infantryman (Diamond 58). So while the public disagreed with his non-participation, the British government backed him up. In early 1917, the United States knew that Chaplin was a British citizen living in the U.S. and that Chaplin was part of the support system for their side. However, their attitude changed when the United States entered the war after the Germans sank th... ...haplin's irreverent humor plays a big role in developing the theme in Regeneration. Without his comedy, many of the patients at Craiglockhart War Hospital would not have been able to look past and overcome the real aspects of the war. Chaplin found a way to make his audience laugh when they were filled with horror, and he opened the minds of the soldiers, which had once been closed like a shell. Works Cited Barker, Pat. Regeneration. New York: Plume, 2003. "Charlie Chaplin Goes to War: Shoulder Arms." Center for History and New Media. 23 April 2003. <http://chnm.gmu.edu/features/episodes/chaplin.html> Diamond, Arthur. The Importance of Charlie Chaplin. San Diego: Lucent Books, 1995 Napolo, Tony, ed. Our Century: 1910-1920. Milwaukee: Gareth Stevens Pub., 1993 Robb, George. British Culture and the First World War. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002

Rubber Company

Atlas Tire and Rubber Company 1) What were Atlas’ major challenges prior to the promotion of Walter Harrison as CEO? The main challenges faced by Atlas’ were competitive and financial challenges. As for the first time from 1905 the company was facing losses for consecutive 2 years in row as the company was facing a severe downturn. This was all because of the new challenges, which the company was facing due to their growth and expansion policiesThe company was also facing the competitive challenges from the low prices import products which were affecting their price strategy resulting in low profits, heavy slump in the automotive market in America also pulled back Atlas to regain its flagship. Due to all these the stock prices dropped down to 20 years low resulting in cutting down of credit rating to junk – bond status. So during this declining phase, the company needs some major transformational changes so that Atlas can regain its position and pride back. 2) Wh y did Harrison focus on an integrated supply chain as a significant element of Atlas’ new strategic plan?As Harrison and his team found that Atlas lacked integrated supply chain capabilities due to which disjointed distribution network was there and various third – partly logistic companies were used which lead to many problems and challenges. And logistics was only considered as a storage and distribution function rather than a strategic supply chain process. As Harrison came out with a strategic plan â€Å" Seven Principle of Growth† for turning around the Atlas’s fate. Harrison special focused on a superior and integrated supply chain.He focused on Integrated Supply Chain because he strongly feels that this would streamline the order and its fulfillment process so that they can be more accurate and easy to use because of their simplicity. The main focus was to deliver â€Å"the right tire to the right place at the right time while keeping costs and in ventories low. † Harrison wants to create an extra edge over the other tire manufacturers by creating the much better service capabilities. 3) What did the UST President, Michael Brogran, do to better understand customer needs? UST business defines Atlas’ s U. S.Tire business, which has the worth of producing, and selling 100 million tires per year and was generating approximately 50 percent of Atlas Revenue. Michael Brogran strongly feels that the superior supply chain was a vision that existed only on paper so he just made a team to understand customer needs in a better way. The main step the team had taken was to work across customer verticals, which were Consumer tires, Commercial Tires and Off Highway Tires. This structure help Atlas to better understand the customer needs in different segment and to meet them in different ways as needs were also different.As the part of this new alignment to understand consumers needs better Brogran facilitates cross company colla boration to identify interactions and collaboration and to share the best practices so that every department can better understand their customer needs for better visibility and control. 4) How did USTSC address the talent gap that they had in the organization? U. S. Tire Supply chain organization’s main objective was to integrate the planning and functional operations which included the responsibilities of contact centers, order management, pricing administration, distribution and delivery, billing and accounts receivable.USTSC was structured so that Atlas can understand & meet the needs of its customers that are classified under various segments likes consumer, commercial and off highway tires. The key goals of USTSC were – Lower the supply chain costs, – Boosting the customer services, – Improvement in the inventory management and associated working capital, – Simplifying the supply chain processes & management of the business. Initially USTSC c ame across major challenge with regards to talent gap.Reduction in headcount from several years impacted the internal supply chain analytical and execution capabilities. Moreover with five different 3PL (third party logistics) the focus was emphasized in managing the suppliers rather than the operations. After a thorough evaluation USTSC concluded that SCM (Supply Chain Management) was never a core competency of Atlas. In order to bridge the gap USTSC obtained assistance from organization that had expertise in planning and managing the complex supply chains.The synergy of these organizations was mutually beneficial to all the parties. Collaboration in supply chain planning, process development and service execution fetched superior results. Due to this synergy Atlas was able to leverage the expertise of Global’s supply chain & Global was in a position to gain a broader insight of Atlas’s requirements and supply chain capabilities. USTSC experienced a synergistic effect because of the Atlas-Global team and experienced more effective customer-supplier 3PL working model. Thus the talent gap was bridged by USTSC . Comment on the effectiveness of Atlas’ efforts to improve team-based strategic collaboration ? With the synergy of Global and Atlas, Atlas was in a position to leverage the expertise of Global’s supply chain & Global was able to derive a broader insight of Atlas’s requirements and supply chain capabilities. Alas-Global USTSC was able to develop team-focused, strategy-driven relationships that were unique in the 3PL industry. The organizations consistently maintained an active & effective coordinated participation across the supply chain sphere.Interactive teams from the three organizations facilitated the planning, developed and executed the key supply chain activities in order to achieve superior supply chain. The collaboration in team was very effective and was result oriented. The SCM team and the steering committee used to do brainstorming sessions to figure out new supply chain initiatives & at the other end the operations team and the SCM team evaluated and ensured the potential projects that could be implemented effectively and are favorable.The relationship building between the organizations was effective and there was a strong executive support from the top management. The organizations attained mutual benefits and they experienced more effective customer-supplier 3PL working model. There was effective synchronization in the strategies with regards to process design and execution. Allocation of resources was well planned and the responsibilities were well defined. More focused on the opportunities available. The integration of the team performance was able to create superior supply chain capabilities within the industry. . As O’Brien, what strategies would you recommend to Atlas to: A) Gain greater control over inventory; B) Optimize the flow of products in the supply chain. In ord er to gain control over inventory & to optimize the flow of products in supply chain: Implementing a centralized system within the 33 company owned regional distribution centers so that the information regarding supply chain, any innovations and critical information are accessible to everyone at one single point of time.Effective integration of the 4 third party logistics providers’ services would generate superior results. Forecasting should be done collaboratively by the Atlas sales group and manufacturing group in order to arrive at accurate estimates. Implementation of the ERP system like SAP would make it easy to figure out inventory analysis.A centralized system like SAP would also create transparency, easy availability of data, accessible to concerned department in a timely manner, constant flow of information, demand and supply of inventory can be balanced and can avoid instances like stock outs or over inventory carrying costs, more reliable and realistic, helps in d ecision making process, implementing a centralized approach in the transportation system, a well defined standard service parameter should be set and should get authorized by the compliance, regular audits and inspections should be done in order to check if there are any violations.

The Future of Work Motivation Theory

Introduction to Special Topic Forum: The Future of Work Motivation Theory Author(s): Richard M. Steers, Richard T. Mowday, Debra L. Shapiro Source: The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Jul. , 2004), pp. 379-387 Published by: Academy of Management Stable URL: http://www. jstor. org/stable/20159049 . Accessed: 25/04/2011 09:09 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www. jstor. org/page/info/about/policies/terms. jsp.JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www. jstor. org/action/showPublisher? publisherCode=aom. . Each copy of any part of a J STOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission.JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email  protected] org. Academy of Management is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Academy of Management Review. http://www. jstor. org ? Academy o? Management Review 2004, Vol. 29, No. 3, 379-387. INTRODUCTIONTO SPECIAL TOPIC FORUMTHEFUTURE WORKMOTIVATION OF THEORY RICHARDM. STEERS RICHARD T. MOWDAY University o? Oregon DEBRA L. SHAPIRO University of Maryland motivation The topic of employee plays a cen tral role in the field of management? both prac see motiva and theoretically. tically Managers tion as an pa rt of the performance integral equation searchers block at all see re levels, while organizational it as a fundamental building been. an overview This introduction represents of the field of work motivation from a theoretical and lays the foundation for the arti standpoint cles The that the Latin on this (mover?. Building as â€Å"the motivation Atkinson defines concept, on direc influence (immediate) contemporary for movement follow. 2 term motivation derives from word in the development of useful theories of effective the Indeed, management practice. of the sub many topic of motivation permeates the study of management, fields that compose man teams, performance including leadership, decision ethics, making, It is not surprising, change. so much that this topic has received over the past several in both decades journals and management periodicals. xam recent articles have several work far we have come in researching agement, managerial and organizational therefore, attention rese arch Whereas of action† tion, vigor, and persistence (1964: 2), while it as â€Å"a process Vroom defines governing †¦ among choice made alternative by persons forms of voluntary (1964: 6). Campbell activity† and Pritchard that suggest motivation dependent the direction, has to do with a set of independent/ variable that explain relationships amplitude, and persistence of an ined how on where this special forum focuses motivation, we are going. That the questions: is, we ask is the future of work motivation What theories? are What the critical be that must questions if progress in the field is to be made? addressed is the future research What How can agenda? we or modify current models extend of work so they continue in the motivation to be relevant are entirely new models future? And where to further our understanding motivation needed of employee behavior and job performance contemporary organizations? To understand where the field first understand ever, we must is going, where how it has of in ndividual's constant behavior, holding fects of aptitude, skill, and understanding task, and the constraints operating in the the ef of the envi ronment (1976: 63-130). These and other definitions have three com mon denominators. con They are all principally or events cerned with factors that energize, over time. and sustain human behavior channel, In various ways, of work theories contemporary motivation to explicate derive from efforts with increasing precision to determine terrelate how these behavior three factors in organizations. inEARLYDEVELOPMENTS IN MOTIVATION THEORY The earliest man motivation to understanding hu approaches date from the time of the Greek and focus on the concept of hedo We review cial are panel forum. indebted to the time staff and of AMR effort and to the editorial of this spe for their on behalf philosophers 2 1 For motivation, recent see reviews Kanfer of the research literature on work and For a more detailed examinati on see Pinder of the evolution Porter, of work and (1990), Mitchell (1997), Ambrose motivation Steers theories, (2003). (1998) and Bigley,Kulik (1999),and Mitchell and Daniels (2002). 379 380 Academy of Management Review July a principle force in behavior. driving seen as focusing were Individuals their efforts on seeking and avoiding This pleasure pain. was later refined and further devel principle in the works of philosophers like Locke, oped nism as Bentham, Mill, and eighteenth Toward issue and Helvetius, centuries. in the seventeenth nism of the past. outcomes would actions tend to this past would that led to positive tend to be repeated, whereas outcomes that led to negative Past actions Thorndike he end of the nineteenth the century, to migrate of motivation from the began to the newly realm of philosophy sci emerging ence of psychology. Challenges immediately arose over the use of hedonism as the basis for the study of motivation. donism had no that clear-cut were specificat ion pleasurable or (1911) re of effect, while Hull was that effort or motivation (1943) suggested largely determined by drive X habit. Skinner later built on these (1953) and others con with the introduction of op? rant principles to by some as reinforcement (referred ditioning ferred to diminish. s the law theories), arguing learn contingent and their that, over relationships and consequences future behavior. guide to thrive individuals time, actions between that these contin As Vroom explains, he of the painful, type or of even events how gencies models vehicles continue these events could be determined for a particular nor did it make clear how persons individual; of ways of attaining their conceptions acquired pleasure pain might the hedonistic or pain, or how be modified assumption the by or source of pleasure In short, experience. no empirical con has or understanding as well job performance, various management performance 2003). (e. g. , Komaki, While psychologists Reinforcem ent as explanatory today work motivation and as in the workplace in programs tent and was untestable (1964: 10). scientists search As a result, behavioral began to ex for more based models ing empirically plain motivation. were these early models instinct the Among as those proposed ories, such by James, Freud, and McDougall. Instead these rational, highly much behavior resulted as McDougall â€Å"an tion inherited which attention an or innate determined ere on in focusing were on stincts and drives, managers focusing more pragmatic issues. A key development here was the work of Frederick and his col Taylor move in the scientific management leagues ment. industrial engineering of (1911), along with many background, Taylor on the in his associates, focused his attention in an increas efficiencies of factory production Coming ingly posed industrialized a new and workers age. These colleagues pro to paternalistic approach that relied on a combination from an that argued from instinct, defined by f viewing theorists behavior as psychological its possessor of a certain excitement predisposi to perceive, of an class, a partic object, manner to or pay experience ular quality and to act to, objects emotional upon in regard such perceiving to it in a particular (1908: 4). James cluded jealousy, identified a list of such instincts sociability, that in managing of job training, incentive pay-for-performance tech selection systems, employee improved and the intro niques, job redesign, including duction of ergonomics.Far from being exploit saw ative in intent, Taylor and his associates as an economic to scientific boon management the use both workers and management through in of improved manufacturing techniques, re and creased shared operating efficiency, the subsequent rise of an in workforce, creasingly sophisticated coupled to maximize with efforts company productivity re without increasing simultaneously employee wards. However, to discredit served this sys wards, ev entually to the widespread rise of unioniza tem, leading in the 1930s. ion efforts social scientists and managers Meanwhile, to consider the role of social influences began on behavior in the 1930s. The role of group dy as com to view employees namics and the need plex beings ences were with multiple as recognized motivational powerful influ influences locomotion, curiosity, and sympathy. fear, as in around the 1920s, however, Beginning to creased of the theory limitations began to be replaced instinct theories emerge, began on drive or reinforcement.Led based by models as Thorndike, Wood by such psychologists worth, the theorists introduced and Hull, drive in motivated of learning and behavior or fu that decisions concerning present posited are ture behaviors influenced largely by the concept with past of rewards associated consequences to this as hedo behavior. (1954) referred Allport 2004 Steers, Mowday, and Shapiro 381 re these Best noted among performance. are Mayo's and Roeth search endeavors (1933) Bendix and Dickson's (1939) works. isberger of this contribution summarized the principle movement that human relations by observing as human to treat workers the â€Å"failure beings on came poor in and, thus, has found considerable popularity on individual to work factors relating research motivation. and their col While Maslow and McClelland on the role of individual differ focused leagues in motivation, (1966; Herzberg, Herzberg to under & Snyderman, Mausner, 1959) sought activities how work of and the nature stand and performance. ne's job influence motivation ar In his motivation-hygiene theory, Herzberg is largely influenced that work motivation gued a job is intrinsically to which the extent chal by for recogni and provides opportunities lenging saw the con tion and reinforcement. Herzberg a job (which he referred text surrounding to as as being in far more factors) temporal hygiene terms of leading to satisfaction and future moti vation. Herzberg de serves credit for introducing the field to the role of job design? specifically, a key factor in work motiva job enrichment? s tion and Hackman extended work job attitudes. and Oldham this line of In subsequent work, have (1976) and others as it relates to research ences to be regarded craftsmanship, as the cause of low morale, and con unresponsiveness, fusion† (1956:294). McGregor (1960) later built on this in his classic early work, The Human Side mo been prin with of Enterprise. new models of work By the 1950s, several tivation emerged, have which collectively to as conten? since their referred theories, to identify aim was factors associated cipal is Maslow's here motivation.Included need (1954) that, as suggests hierarchy theory, which their way individuals up a develop, they work on the fulfillment of a series of based hierarchy needs, including physiological, and esteem, security, belongingness, that the first Maslow self-actualization. argued on the list represent thre e needs deficiency before needs that people must master they can into a healthy while the personality, develop to two represent needs that relate growth of and the development achievement individual human Alderfer (1972) later adapted potential. o encompass exis this model just three needs: last tence, relatedness, A second need introduced growth. theory of the same (1938) but more by Murray and era, first prioritized safety and and motivation, design, job performance, Deci while others, (1975; Ryan & Deci, including theories 2000), have articulated focusing specif versus on task-based intrinsic extrinsic ically in motivation factors (e. g. , self-determination theory). fully de veloped by McClelland (1961, 1971), ignored the THE â€Å"GOLDENAGE† OF WORK MOTIVATION THEORIES n the mid to 1960s, a new approach Beginning the study of work motivation which emerged, on delineating focused the processes underly contrast Process theories ing work motivation. content with the earlier theories, which sharply on identifying focused factors associated with in a relatively motivation static environment. view work motivation Process theorists from a dynamic tionships to human and look for causal rela perspective across as they relate time and events in the workplace. ehavior to the process is a series Central theory genre of cognitive motivation theories of that collec to understand the thought pro tively attempt cesses in determining that people go through to behave theories on and focused instead of a hierarchy concept of an array of distinct the motivational potency achieve defined and clearly needs, including and autonomy. McClel ment, affiliation, power, at any given individuals land argued time, that, that often needs several possess competing serve to motivate when activated.This behavior contrasts notion of a steady pro with Maslow's over time up a hypothetical gression hierarchy as individuals grow and mature. By far, most of on in McClelland's model focuse d the attention (defined as behavior of with a standard directed toward competition as a need to and power excellence) (defined over one's environment). have control McClel the needs for achievement a land's conceptualization offered researchers as they related to set of clearly needs defined to Maslow's in contrast behavior, workplace more abstract for conceptualizations (e. g. , need versus achievement need for self-actualization) n the workplace. In our view, the the late 1960s and generated during 1970s make this period of a early something theories. Never â€Å"golden age† of work motivation never since has before and, some would argue, how 382 Academy of Management Review July in explicating been made the progress of work motivation. etiology best known of the cognitive theories Perhaps is expectancy (or expectancy-valence) theory. from the early work Expectancy theory derives saw be of Lewin (1938) and Tolman (1959), who havior based as purposeful, on conscious and lar gely goal directed, intentions. Vroom (1964) pre formulation of ex systematic o much several models emerging ences on work motivation of cross-cultural influ and job performance & of 1982; Earley, 1997; Steers (Bhagat & McQuaid, 2001; Triandis, Sanchez-Runde, 1995). to expectancy In addition theory, a number other theories of work moti important cognitive vation have been since the 1960s, developed its own focus. Adams each with (1963), for exam ple, how em equity theory to explain both cognitively and behavior ployees respond to perceived in the workplace unfairness ally & Colwell, 2003, and Weick, (see also Mowday introduced sented the first to the workplace. ectancy theory as it related He argued that employees tend to rationally various evaluate work behaviors on-the-job those be harder) and then choose (e. g. , working haviors believe will lead to their most val they ued work-related rewards and outcomes the attractiveness Thus, promotion). ular task and the energy invested a g reat deal on the extent pend employee to valued Porter believes outcomes. and its accomplishment (e. g. , a of a partic in it will de to which the will lead & Maruyama, that 1976). Adams Bougon, argued both conditions of underpayment and overpay can ment influence behavior.Re subsequent cent work on procedural and distributive justice further develops this area using the fundamen tal concept of equity and its consequences (Cro & Rupp, 2003; Folger, 1986; Greenberg, panzano & McFarlin, 1993; Sweeney 1993). in the late Goal-setting theory also emerged as researchers to discover that the 1960s, began simple hanced Steers showed goal act of specifying en for behavior targets task performance 1968, 1996; (Locke, in this arena & Porter, 1974). Research and specificity, goal difficulty, to enhance each served task on numerous Based empiricalLawler Vroom's (1968) expanded to recognize the role of individual initial work differences abilities and skills) (e. g. , employee in linking and role clarity job job effort to actual Porter and performance. the relationship between Lawler also clarified and sub performance that this relation satisfaction, sequent arguing of the ship is mediated by the extent and quality in exchange receive rewards for employees job performance. a Finally, feedback that goal commitment Porter and to recog incorporated loop nize learning about past relation by employees in the That is, if superior ships. erformance to lead to superior failed future rewards, past effort may suffer as incentives and the employee in the employee's reward system lose credibility good Lawler eyes. performance. Locke and Latham studies, (1990) subsequently a formal theory of goal setting. proposed Earley a time dimension to and Erez (1991) later added this Rosse topic by on examining motivation, the role of cognitive and processing while Crown a number its initial of Since publication, or further refine to extend have worked scholars to re the basic framework expectancy cognitive research and new theo flect emerging findings retical developments 1990; Mitch (e. . , Kanfer, For example, ell, 1997). expectancy theory has to study forms of work behavior been used other than job performance, ab including employee citizen and organizational turnover, senteeism, Porter, & 1977; Mowday, (Mobley, ship behavior 1973; Steers, 1982; Organ, 1988; Porter & Steers, have also Steers & Rhodes, 1978). Researchers and social influences linked group expectations to individual decisions work motivation (Porter, Lawler, ancy & Hackman, principles have basic expect 1975). Finally, into been incorporated the role of group goals, in (1995) examined on performance. o individual addition goals, of goal-setting Applications theory in the form of individual and team management-by-objectives are now used widely in programs throughout (Ambrose & Kulik, 1999). dustry saw significant this period Finally, develop on the role of social ments focusing cognition on behavior and self -efficacy and performance as Bandura such researchers by leading a social Bandura (1977a,b, 1997). cog proposed nitive that self-confidence suggesting theory, to lies at the heart of an individual's incentive a major act or to be proactive. fter Indeed, on social review of the research literature cog nition and self-efficacy, and Luthans Stajkovic for the (1998, 2003) found considerable support in determining role of self-efficacy work as moder related particularly performance, ated by task complexity and locus of control. 2004 Sfeers, Mowday, and Shapiro 383 Based posed place izational research, this extending a model through behavior. on this Luthans concept labeled (2001) has pro into the work positive organ An outside this situation in the subject cause it is no izations) observer that either rom conclude might we have lost interest be of work motivation (perhaps in organ issue longer a pressing or that we solved the work motivation the con con its RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN WORK MO TIVATION Many and 1970s and pool cated nessed of the have ideas emerging from the 1960s been subsequently to reflect an further developed and more of research findings research a series methods. extended thereby eliminating problem long ago, for additional work. Neither of these need seems the clusions On very plausible. economy, trary, and e-commerce, dot. oms, as the more ization (as well facturing is force and service in the new replete increased traditional a motivated a with global manu work Indeed, of refinements and extensions For expanded sophisti the 1980s wit of researchers existing example, in conceptual made great strides developments on social and empirical work learning focusing on in new work focusing theory, as they did systems, innovation and justice, punishment, procedural on work influences and cross-cultural creativity, behavior. interest However, by the 1990s, intellectual in work motivation least as mea theory? t goal-setting theory, job design, sured cline sid er by journal precipitously. the number articles publications? seemed As evidence of theoretical of to de this, con to be reward theories. hallmark of frequently MIT econo Indeed, competitive advantage. over a de mist Lester Thurow (1992) observed cade that successful (and ago companies countries) principally nology vated will on compete the quality their human in the future their based tech of both resources. firms), as cited A moti and a critical workforce becomes strategic in such asset then, has Why, competition. so little intellectual there been focus activity we have ing on this important topic? Perhaps the breakthrough ideas that can yet to develop level of understanding. push us to the next on work mo While theoretical developments tivation in recent have declined may years, the world ? f work has changed dramatically. one can argue that the past decade Indeed, has witnessed other than any are both Companies and expanding (often at downsizing or levels in different the same divisions time, is character of the hierarchy). The workforce ized by increased with diver diversity highly and demands.Information technol gent needs both the manner ogy has changed frequently and location tional forms of work (such now published over the past decade journals & Kulik, & 1999, or Mitchell find few articles that You will Daniels, 2002). in focus on genuine theoretical developments see minor area. exten will this Instead, you empirical) science havioral see Ambrose (e. g. , sions, tests, or applications empirical ing theories. While clearly helpful, to breakthrough leads developments of exist this hardly in our (as opposed in leading greater decade workplace in memory. changes of the principles understanding underlying work motivation.At the same of time, a review recent in the the most editions of textbooks field of management and organizational be havior that most of the theories dis reveals cussed date from the 1960s and 1970s, with to more recent work. references only fleeting curious that some early motivation (It is also theories been widely that have subsequently to permeate continue discredited such texts. ) In short, while of management other fields negotiations, tion design) decision (e. g. , leadership, making, and teams, and organiza groups to develop continue conceptually, substantive theoretical focus developments on work motivation have not kept pace. ng research activities. as those New found Teams organiza in e-com are re merce) are commonplace. as of hierarchy, distributions. of power is on the rise. Managing workers contingent to perplex continues workers expe knowledge across rienced managers industries. divergent And globalization of man and the challenges defining traditional the notion aging stead across borders are now the norm in of the exception. as well The use 3 See 2003) focusing a key strategic mance. a special on issue the asset o? Harvard Business Review (January as of employee motivation importance in competition and corporate perfor 84 Academy of Management Review July can have a profound These changes influence on how companies to attract, retain, and attempt motivate their employees. Yet we lack new mod in of guiding behavior capable managerial this new era of work. As Cappelli â€Å"Most notes, observers of the corporate world believe that the traditional between and relationship employer is gone, but there is little understand employee it ended and even is less about what ing of why els that relationship† We believe (1999: 1). our intellec to redirect time has come new models? and into discovering tual energies new models? f work motiva research toward commensurate tion and with job performance replacing that the this new era. tions work plete, more theories. more for developing complex motivation that are more valid, broader useful in scope, and, to practitioners theories of more com by implication, than existing In the second, Yitzhak Fried and Linda Haynes examine in which ti me factors can Slowik ways influence and job perfor processes goal-setting mance in work that organizations. They argue the addition of time as a key variable in goal and validity setting theory adds to its dynamism in helping in in behavior explain employee creasingly environments. omplex, continually evolving work THE ROAD AHEAD With this for papers motivation. in mind, in 2001 AMR issued a call on the topic of the future of work was A special seminar held at the Next, Myeong-Gu Seo, Lisa Feldman Barrett, and Jean M. Bartunek draw on both psychologi cal and neurobiological of core affec theories a set of direct and tive experiences to identify indirect paths affec through which work-related can influence tive feelings three dimensions of behavioral and direction, intensity, to direct In addition af influence, persistence. an also influence behavior fective experiences on goal level their effects indirectly, through and goal commitment, as well of motivation as on components judgme nt expectancy, utility, and progress. L. Ackerman Ruth Kanfer and Phillip then use to fa and adult development theories life-span an understanding cilitate of the implications of on workplace motivation. aging aging Although as leading to declining is generally viewed cog nitive these au and intellectual capabilities, thors argue that this view may be overly sim is a more that aging Instead, plistic. hey argue in which process, cognitive complex declining are accompanied in other abilities by growth intellectual of motives abilities, reorganization traits. and goals, and changing personality mo how aging influences Fully understanding a comprehensive tivation, therefore, requires com of the different and often understanding taking changes this, Naomi Following and S. Alexander Gilder, pensatory place. Ellemers, Haslam Dick de use self the key to relating outcomes: of the Academy of Manage 2001 annual meeting ment to stimulate in the interest and discussion to the call, researchers I n response sub topic. ere mitted subse which papers, fifty-six of space reviewed. quently the journal, many papers worthy accommodated. However, following view six papers emerged cycles, offer new and useful ideas and future directions of the topic. What these for the theoretical In view could limitations not multiple that seem insights development of be re to into in common is a have papers on existing to build of effort theories genuine work motivation and extending by adapting con of the changing them to fit the realities is temporary Today's workplace workplace. hort-term characterized by an increasingly variable, performance among increasing employ interdependence ees in some form of team (often manifested to affective responses evolving organization), the workplace value increasing experience, on the part of employees, conflicts and motive nature of the transitory and a clear recognition focus, of careers. time as a critical six papers a variety address our understanding The t ivation Edwin A. Locke in this special issue appearing to advancing of issues critical of motivation theory and mo social pro categorization theory and identity cesses to examine in which ndividual the ways to determine interact work and group processes in organizations motivation. The fact that work around increasingly organized to understand it is important gests influence how work is teams how sug groups The first paper, by on focuses P. Latham, on work moti of metatheories the development six recommenda vation. These authors present in the workplace. and Gary motivation. Their paper can have in groups participation explores a power 2004 Steers, Mowday, and Shapiro 385 on motivation ful influence can be understood what by on individual-level effects. Finally, Hugo lines of research the influences and bove focusing and beyond Crown, D. F. , & Rosse, J. G. 1995. Yours, through mine the and ours: exclusively several Deci, Facilitating of individual and Human group productivity and g roup goals. Decision Processes, motivation. Organizational 64: 138-150. New York: social across integration Behavior M. Kehr synthesizes on motivation by E. L. 1975. Intrinsic P. C. 1997. Face, Plenum. structure: cultures. An New of explicit and on motivation abilities perceived model. using a compensatory workplace answer some model intriguing, helps solved examining implicit motives in the Kehr's unreEarley, of organizational analysis York: Oxford University Earley, P. C, and & Erez, norms: models. M. and harmony, behavior Press. 1991. Time role Journal of dependency effects processing of on 76: individual questions concerning goal at tainment and why self-set goals may sometimes be nonmotivating. to the these papers contribute Throughout, research and theo long tradition of substantive in the field of work motiva retical development tion that benefit both organizational researchers and practicing alike. managers goals motivational 717-727. 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Work motivation. Bulletin, F. , & Dickson, Cambridge, K. E. Bougon, context. M. G. , & Maru yama, Behavior J. 1939. Management Harvard University mance, Organizational 15: 32-65. Richard College California cultural Richard quist M. Steers is the Kazumitsu University His current Shiomi of Oregon. research Professor He received of Business, at Irvine. of Management his Ph. D. from in the Lundquist the University of and cross focuses on employee motivation management. T. Mowday is the Gerald B. Bashaw Professor of Management received his and research in the Lund Ph. D. on from leadership the of Business, College at of California University in organizations. University Irvine andHe of Oregon. focuses his teaching Steers, Mowday, and Shapiro Debra ment L. Shapiro, the Willard Graham of Manage Professor formerly Distinguished at UNC-Chapel is now professor of management in the and organization Hill, R. H. Smith School at College of Business, of Maryland Park, and a member University of the Academy of Management's Board of Governors. She her Ph. D. received from conflict Her Univ ersity. in organizations that the cross-cultural challenges research tend of managing focuses on issues regarding employee how to motivate to manage behaviors and Northwestern unproductive conflict effectively.